It is truly unfortunate that no comprehensive manual onRoman battle tactics survives. We have evidence of a manual written by SextusJulius Frontinus (governor of Britain 74-78 A.D), but all that remains fromthat document are fragments and an appendix. Sextus claimed that his manual wasthe only one written up to his time.
Later, in the fifth century A.D, Publius Flavius VegetiusRenatus compiled a manual from several sources which included, by hisadmission, Cato the Elder, Cornelius Celsus, Paternus, the aforementionedFrontinus, Augustus, Trajan, and Hadrian. Curiously, Caesar was omitted! Thiswork called De Ra Militari or Epidoma Ra Militaris. Indifferently written, itlacks scholarship and represents the views of a person who was neither soldieror historian, but it’s all we have.
Let’s look at Vegetius and see what he has to say.
Order of Battle:
“In drawing up an army in order of battle, three things areto be considered: the sun, the dust and the wind. The sun in your face dazzlesthe sight: if the wind is against you, it turns aside and blunts the force ofyour weapons, while it assists those of your adversary; and the dust driving inyour front fills the eyes of your men and blinds them.”
Distances and Intervals:
“Having explained the general disposition of the lines, wenow come to the distances and dimensions. One thousand paces contain a singlerank of one thousand six hundred and fifty-six foot soldiers, each man beingallowed three feet. Six ranks drawn up on the same extent of ground willrequire nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-six men. To form only three ranksof the same number will take up two thousand paces, but it is much better toincrease the number of ranks than to make your front too extensive. We havebefore observed the distance between each rank should be six feet, one foot ofwhich is taken up by the men. Thus if you form a body of ten thousand men intosix ranks they will occupy thirty-six feet. in depth and a thousand paces infront.”
The three foot space per manhas been debated some suggesting it is not enough, six feet being moreappropriate.
General advice:
“Men must be sufficiently tried before they are led againstthe enemy.
Valor is superior to numbers.
The nature of the ground is often of more consequence thancourage.
Few men are born brave; many become so through care andforce of discipline.
An army is strengthened by labor and enervated by idleness.
Troops are not to be led to battle unless confident ofsuccess.
An army unsupplied with grain and other necessary provisionswill be vanquished without striking a blow.
A general whose troops are superior both in number andbravery should engage in the oblong square, which is the first formation.
He who judges himself inferior should advance his right wingobliquely against the enemy's left. This is the second formation.
If your left wing is strongest, you must attack the enemy'sright according to the third formation.
The general who can depend on the discipline of his menshould begin the engagement by attacking both the enemy's wings at once, thefourth formation.
He whose light infantry is good should cover his center byforming them in its front and charge both the enemy's wings at once. This isthe fifth formation.
He who cannot depend either on the number or courage of histroops, if obliged to engage, should begin the action with his right andendeavor to break the enemy's left, the rest of his army remaining formed in aline perpendicular to the front and extended to the rear like a javelin. Thisis the sixth formation.
If your forces are few and weak in comparison to the enemy,you must make use of the seventh formation and cover one of your flanks eitherwith an eminence, a city, the sea, a river or some protection of that kind.
When an enemy's spy lurks in the camp, order all yoursoldiers in the day time to their tents, and he will instantly be apprehended.
Consult with many on proper measures to be taken, butcommunicate the plans you intend to put in execution to few, and those only ofthe most assured fidelity; or rather trust no one but yourself.
Punishment, and fear thereof, are necessary to keep soldiersin order in quarters; but in the field they are more influenced by hope andrewards.
Good officers never engage in general actions unless inducedby opportunity or obliged by necessity.”
Pretty basic stuff. What do we really learn here? Not much. We’ll get to a more importantdiscussion in the next post.
